Sentences with a common main part. Types of subordinate clauses in complex sentences
Explanatory clauses answer questions about indirect cases. The main part needs semantic explanation; the main part without a subordinate clause looks unfinished.
Examples: Still, it seems to me that you do not have the right to do this. (it seems that?)
Subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses answer the question which?; delivered not from the main part, but from the noun. In an explanatory clause there is always the word “which” or a word that can be replaced with it.
Examples: She sang tunes that moved me to tears. (what are the motives?)
Subordinate adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses answer adverb questions. Since there are many adverb questions, we will divide adverbial clauses into subtypes:
The purpose clause answers the question “for what purpose?” The subordinate clause always contains the word “so that”
Examples: To come quickly New Year, we moved the clock hands forward.
Subordinate concession. In a subordinate clause there is always a conjunction “although” or another synonym (despite the fact that, that neither, no matter how...)
Examples: The prince has a stupid face, although many considered him a dull person.
Subordinate clause. The subordinate clause always contains the conjunction “so that”. A comma must be placed before so.
Examples: The boat had no oars, so we had to row it with a board.
Additional reasons. The subordinate reason always contains the conjunction “because” or its synonym (since, because)
Subordinate conditions. There is a conjunction “if”, but sometimes the conjunction “if” can be played by the conjunction “when”.
Examples: If I had known all the consequences, I would not have gotten into the water.
Subordinate modus operandi. Answers the question “how?”, indicates the method of action.
Examples: He ate as if he had not eaten for three days.
Measures and degrees.
Examples: It was so dark that I couldn't see anything.
Subordinate clause of comparison.
Examples: The air occasionally trembled, like disturbed water trembles.
Subordinate clause of time. There is always the question “when?”
Examples: When I woke up, it was already dawn.
Subordinate place. Answers the questions “where? Where? where?"
REMEMBER: The main thing for determining the type of subordinate clauses is the semantic question.
Conjunctions and allied words can add additional shades of meaning to a complex sentence.
Example: The village where Evgeniy was bored was a charming place. — This is a complex sentence with a subordinate attributive, which has an additional spatial connotation of meaning.
In the Russian language, there is a group of complex sentences, the subordinate parts of which cannot be called either attributive, explanatory, or adverbial. These are complex sentences with subordinate clauses.
Such subordinate clauses contain an additional, incidental, additional message to the content of the main part of the complex sentence. In this sense, such subordinate clauses often approach in meaning to plug-in constructions.
The means of communication in them are the conjunctive words that, why, why, why, as a result of which, etc., which seem to repeat in a generalized form the content of the main part.
For example: His enemies, his friends, which may be one and the same thing, honored him this way and that. (A. Pushkin) The coachman decided to travel along the river, which was supposed to shorten the naked journey by three miles. (A. Pushkin)
It is impossible to pose a question to connecting subordinate clauses, since in the main part of a complex sentence there is no word or phrase that would require the presence of a subordinate clause.
Algorithm for determining the type of subordinate clause
1). Determine the main part of a complex sentence.
2). Identify the reference word in the main part (if there is one).
3). Ask the question from the main part to the subordinate clause:
- from the content of the main part as a whole;
- from the predicate in the main part;
- from a noun or pronoun in the main part;
- It is impossible to ask a question to a subordinate clause (with adjuncts and comparatives).
4). Indicate the means of communication in the subordinate part (conjunctions or allied words).
Subordinate clause- a syntactically dependent predicative part of a complex sentence containing a subordinating conjunction or a conjunctive word.
For example: Vladimir saw with horror that he drove into an unfamiliar forest (Pushkin). Portray the feeling which I was experiencing at the time, very hard(Korolenko). Term used in educational practice "subordinate clause" usually replaced in theoretical works by the term “subordinate part”(accordingly, instead of “main sentence” - “main part”); This avoids the use of the same term “sentence” in relation to the whole and its individual parts, and also emphasizes the interconnectedness of the structural parts of a complex sentence.
Subordinate clause can be associated with a separate word (group of words) of the main sentence, performing the function of distributing or explaining these members.
For example: She dreams that she is walking through a snowy meadow(Pushkin) (the subordinate clause extends the predicate of the main sentence is dreaming). His nature was one of those who need an audience for a good deed.(L. Tolstoy) (the subordinate clause explains the group of words one of those).
In other cases, the subordinate clause correlates with the entire composition of the main clause.
For example: If grandfather left home, grandmother would arrange the most interesting meetings in the kitchen.(Gorky) (the subordinate clause refers to the main thing as a whole).
A subordinate clause can clarify a word in the main clause that is not a member of the sentence.
For example: Grow, a country where, by the will of a single people, all merged into one people!(Lebedev-Kumach) the subordinate clause refers to the address word country).
A subordinate clause can refer to two main clauses as a whole.
For example: It was already quite dawn and people began to rise when I returned to my room.(L. Tolstoy).
Classification of types of subordinate clauses
School textbooks present two types of classifications of subordinate clauses.
In the complexes of T.A. Ladyzhenskaya and M.M. Razumovsky subordinate clauses are divided into three groups: definitive , explanatory And circumstances ; the latter are divided into subgroups.
In the V.V. complex Babaytseva's subordinate clauses are divided into subject , predicates , definitive , additional And circumstances depending on which member of the sentence is replaced by a subordinate clause (to determine the type of subordinate clause, questions are asked to various members of the sentence).
Since the classification adopted in the complexes of T.A. is more common in the practice of school and pre-university teaching. Ladyzhenskaya and M.M. Razumovskaya, let’s turn to her.
Let's present information about the types of subordinate clauses in the form of a summary table.
Types of subordinate clauses
| 1. Definitive (including pronominal attributives) | Answer questions Which? whose? Who exactly? What exactly? and refer to a noun or pronoun in the main part; most often joined with the help of allied words which, which, whose, where
etc. and unions what, to, as if
and etc. | The native places where I grew up will forever remain in my heart; That, who does nothing, will achieve nothing; She looked with such a look that everyone was silent. |
| 2. Explanatory | They answer questions about indirect cases and usually refer to the predicate in the main part; join through unions what, so, if, if, if etc. and allied words where, where, how many, which and etc. | I soon realized that I was lost; It seemed to him, as if everyone around him was happy about his happiness. |
| 3. Circumstantial: | ||
| mode of action, measure and degree | Answer questions How? how? to what extent? in what degree? how much? and usually refer to one word in the main sentence; join through unions what, to, as if, exactly and allied words how, how much, how much. | We're so tired that we couldn't go further. |
| time
| Answer questions When? From what time? until what time? how long? when, while, how, while, as, while, until, after, barely, since, only, slightly, before, as soon as, just, just, just, only, just a little, earlier than, before. | Until the rain stops, you will have to stay at home. |
| places | Answer questions Where? Where? where? and usually refer to the entire main clause; join with the help of allied words where, where, where. | People go to folklore practice where they are still alive folk traditions songs, tales |
| goals | Answer questions For what? for what purpose? and usually refer to the entire main clause; join through unions so that, in order to, in order to, then that, in order, if only, yes, if only. | To avoid getting lost, we went out onto the path. |
| causes | Answer questions Why? from what? for what reason? and usually refer to the entire main clause; are joined with the help of conjunctions because, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, because of the fact that, then that, since, for, good, since, in connection with the fact that, especially since . | Because the candle burned weakly, the room was almost dark. |
| conditions | Answer the question under what condition? and usually refer to the entire main clause; join through unions if, if, when, if, if, how, once, how soon, whether... whether. | If the weather does not improve within 24 hours, the trip will have to be postponed. |
| concessions
| Answer questions no matter what? in spite of what? and usually refer to the entire main clause; join through unions although, despite the fact that, despite the fact that, let and combinations of pronominal words with a particle no matter how, no matter where, no matter how much, no matter where. | Even though it was already well after midnight b, the guests did not leave; No matter how you rot the tree, it keeps growing. |
| comparisons
| Answer questions like what? like who? than what? than who? and usually refer to the entire main clause; join through unions as, just as, as if, as if, exactly, as if, as if, what. | Birch branches reach towards the sun, as if they were holding out their hands to him. |
| consequences | They answer questions about why what happened? what follows from this? and usually refer to the entire main clause; join by union So. | The summer was not very hot so the mushroom harvest should be good. |
Subordinate clauses can be attached to the main clause using a particle whether, used in the meaning of a union.
For example: He didn't know if tomorrow would come. Union-particle whether can serve to convey an indirect question: They asked if we would go with them.
REMEMBER: The main thing for determining the type of subordinate clauses is the semantic question.
Conjunctions and allied words can add additional shades of meaning to a complex sentence.
For example: The village where Evgeniy was bored was a charming place. This complex sentence with attributive clause , having an additional spatial connotation of meaning.
In the Russian language, there is a group of complex sentences, the subordinate parts of which cannot be called either attributive, explanatory, or adverbial. This complex sentences with subordinate clauses .
Such clauses contain additional, incidental, additional message to the content of the main part of a complex sentence. In this sense, such subordinate clauses often approach in meaning to plug-in constructions.
The means of communication in them are allied words what, why, why, why, as a result of which and others, which seem to repeat in a generalized form the content of the main part.
For example: His enemies, his friends, which may be the same thing, he was honored this way and that.(A. Pushkin) The coachman decided to travel along the river, which was supposed to shorten the naked path by three miles.
(A. Pushkin)
It is impossible to pose a question to connecting subordinate clauses, since in the main part of a complex sentence there is no word or phrase that would require the presence of a subordinate clause.
Algorithm for determining the type of subordinate clause
1. Determine the main part of a complex sentence.
2. Identify the supporting word in the main part (if there is one).
3. Ask a question from the main part to the subordinate clause:
b) from the predicate in the main part;
c) from a noun or pronoun in the main part;
d) it is impossible to ask a question to a subordinate clause (with adjectives and comparatives).
4. Indicate the means of communication in the subordinate part (conjunctions or allied words).
5. Name the type of subordinate clause.
), there are four main types of subordinate clauses:
- definitive,
- explanatory,
- circumstantial (mode of action and degree, place, time, condition, cause, purpose, comparison, concession, consequence),
- connecting.
Subordinate clauses
Refers to a noun or pronoun. Answer questions about definitions ( Which? which? which?).
Join using allied words: which, which, whose, what, where, when, from, etc.
And also unions: so that, as if, exactly, as if, etc.
Examples
- [The alarm clock rang]. Alarm Which?(Which my grandmother gave to me). [Alarm clock rang( which my grandmother gave me)].
- [The house burned to the ground]. House Which?(Where I was born). [House( where I was born) burned to the ground].
- [A.S. More than one monument was erected to Pushkin]. A.S. Pushkin which one?(Whose contribution to the development of Russian literature is difficult to overestimate). [A.S. Pushkin( , whose contribution to the development of Russian literature can hardly be overestimated,) erected more than one monument].
- [That day my life changed]. In a day Which?(When I understood everything). [In that day( when I understood everything) my life has changed].
Explanatory clauses
Refers to a verb. Answer case questions ( Who? What? to whom? what? whom? what? by whom? how? etc.).
Join using allied words: who, what, which, whose, where, where, where, how, why, why, how much
And also unions: what, in order, as if, as if, as if, etc.
Examples
Here the main clause is in square brackets, and the subordinate clause is in round brackets.
- [I'm definitely sure]. Sure in what?(In that the Earth has the shape of a ball). [I'm sure( that the Earth is spherical)].
- [He found out]. Found out What?(How many days have passed since the launch of the first satellite). [He found out( , how many days have passed since the launch of the first satellite)].
- [They understood]. Got it What?(Why did I do this). [They understood( why did I do this)].
Adverbial clauses
Common circumstances play a role. Answer detailed questions. Like ordinary circumstances, they are divided into several types:
| Subordinate clause type | Questions it answers | Linking using conjunctions | Linking using allied words | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mode of action | How? how? | how, what, so that, as if, exactly |
|
|
| Measures and degrees | how much? in what degree? | what how | how much, how much |
|
| Places | Where? Where? where? | where, where, where |
|
|
| Time | When? how long? since when? How long? | when, while, while, as soon as, since, until |
|
|
| Goals | For what? for what purpose? | so that (so that) |
|
|
| Causes | Why? from what? | because, because, since, for |
|
|
| Conditions | under what condition? | if, when, times |
|
|
| Concessions | no matter what? | although, despite the fact that, let, let | no matter how much, no matter how |
|
| Consequences | And..? hence..? | So |
|
|
| Comparative | How? | as if, as if |
|
Subordinate clauses
Apply to the entire main part.
Join with the help of allied words: what, where, where, where, when, how, why
They supplement and explain the content of the main part. Often they have the meaning of a consequence.
Examples
- He was worried( , that’s why I couldn’t pass the exam successfully).
- My brother never opened the book during all this time( that didn't give me peace of mind).
see also
Notes
Links
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
- Main clause - Dictionary of literary terms
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See what a “subordinate clause” is in other dictionaries:
Subordinate clause- SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. See main sentence... Dictionary of literary terms
APPENDIX, tka, m. Dictionary Ozhegova. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
A syntactically dependent predicative part of a complex sentence containing a subordinating conjunction or a conjunctive word. Vladimir saw with horror that he had driven into an unfamiliar forest (Pushkin). Describe the feeling I had at that time... ...
The dependent part of a complex sentence containing a conjunction or a conjunctive word. Refers to the entire main clause or to one word in it (additional, attributive clauses). F.I. Buslaev laid the foundation... ... Literary encyclopedia
- (gram.). This is what is called, in contrast to the main sentence, a sentence that does not have an independent, integral meaning without the main sentence. The syntactic structure of all Indo-European languages shows beyond doubt that the creation of the category P... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
subordinate clause- linguistic Part of a complex sentence, syntactically subordinate to the main part (main clause) and connected to it by a conjunction or a conjunctive word. P ot sentence of reason. Conditional sentence... Dictionary of many expressions
subordinate clause- See main sentence... Grammar Dictionary: Grammar and linguistic terms
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE- (following clause, German Nachsatz), this is the name, by analogy with the terminology of grammar, the second part of the musical period, corresponding to its first part, which is called the main (previous) sentence and ends for the most part ... ... Riemann's Dictionary of Music
Subordinate clause answering the question which? and relating to a member of the main sentence, expressed by a noun or a substantivized word. Subordinate clauses are attached to the main clause using... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms
A subordinate clause that answers any case question and relates to a member of the main sentence that needs semantic expansion: without a subordinate clause, the main clause would be structurally and semantically incomplete. Subordinate clauses... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms
Subordinate clauses in Russian are dependent parts of the main clause in a complex sentence. That is, they play the role of secondary members of the sentence. Therefore, the types of subordinate clauses are divided taking into account the role played in the sentence. You can ask one question for the entire secondary sentence, just as you do with the members of the sentence.
Main types of subordinate clauses
Four types of them are considered: attributive, adverbial, explanatory and connective. We can give examples that represent all types of subordinate clauses:
- The flowerbed that was planted in the yard left side from the porch, it resembled a smaller copy of the town - a sort of Flower Town from Nosov’s fairy tale about Dunno. (Definitive).
- And it seemed to me that restless and funny little people really lived there. (Expository).
- And we don’t see them because they are hiding from us underground. (Adverbial).
- But as soon as we leave somewhere, the little ones come out of their hiding places and begin to vigorously enjoy life. (Connection).
Determinative clauses
These subordinate clauses in Russian define the attribute of one noun or sometimes a phrase consisting of a noun and a demonstrative word. They serve as answers to questions Which? whose? which? These secondary sentences are joined to the main part by allied words whose, which, who, what, which, from where, where, when. Usually in the main part complex sentence there are indicator words such as such, everyone, everyone, any or That in various forms of childbirth. The following proposals can be taken as examples:
- Living beings, ( which?) who live on the planet next to people, feel a kind human attitude towards them.
- Reach out your hand with food, open your palm, freeze, and some bird, ( which?) whose voice is heard in the bushes of your garden in the morning, will sit on your hand with trust.
- Every person ( Which?) who considers himself the pinnacle of the Almighty's creation, must correspond to this title.
- Whether it’s a garden, a forest or an ordinary yard, (Which?)where everything is familiar and familiar, can open the door to the wonderful world of nature for a person.
Subordinate clauses
Interesting types of subordinate clauses that relate not to a single word or phrase, but to the entire main part. They are called connecting. Often these parts of a complex sentence contain the meaning of the consequence, supplementing or explaining the content of the main part. Secondary sentences of this type are joined using allied words where, how, when, why, where, what. Examples:
- And only next to his mother does any baby feel protected, what is provided by nature itself.
- Caring for cubs, tenderness for one’s offspring, self-sacrifice are embedded in a creature at the level of instinct, how every creature has an inherent need to breathe, sleep, eat and drink.
Explanatory clauses
If the author of the text wants to clarify, specify one word of the main part, which has the meaning of thought, perception, feeling or speech. Often these clauses refer to verbs, such as say, answer, think, feel, be proud, hear. But they can also specify adjectives, for example, satisfied or glad. It is often observed when these types of subordinate clauses act as explanations of adverbs ( clear, necessary, necessary, known, sorry) or nouns ( message, thought, statement, rumor, thought, feeling). Explanatory clauses are added using:
Unions (so that, what, when, as if, how and others);
Any allied words;
Particles (of the union).
Examples include the following compound sentences:
- Have you ever watched, ( What?) how amazingly the sunlight plays, reflected in dew drops, insect wings, snowflake tiles?
- One day, a person will surely be incredibly happy about this beauty, ( what?) that I discovered a unique world of beauty.
- And it immediately becomes clear, ( What?) that everything around was created for a reason, that everything is interconnected.
- Consciousness will be filled with indescribable feelings of joy, (which?) as if you yourself are a part of this amazing and unique world.
Clauses of manner and degree
Adverbial clauses are divided into several subtypes. A group of dependent parts of compound sentences that relate to the attribute or action named in its main part, and denote its degree or measure, as well as image, are classified as subordinate clauses of manner of action and degree. They usually answer the following questions: how? how much? How? in what degree? The design of the connection between the subordinate and the main part looks something like this: full adjective + noun + such; full adjective + such; verb + so. The joining of these subordinate clauses is ensured by conjunctions so that, what, as if or allied words how much, so, how much and some others. Examples:
- The girl laughed so contagiously, so spontaneously, that it was difficult for everyone else not to smile.
- The ringing sounds of her laughter broke the tense silence of the room, as if multi-colored peas from a bag suddenly scattered.
- And the baby’s face itself changed so much, as far as this was possible in this case: the girl, exhausted by the disease, could easily be called a lovely and absolutely healthy child.
Adverbial clauses
These dependent clauses indicate the place of origin of the action, which is named in the main part of the complex sentence. Referring to the entire main sentence, they answer the following questions: where? Where? Where? and are joined by allied words where, where, where. Often there are demonstrative words in the main clause there, everywhere, there, everywhere, from everywhere and some others. The following examples of such proposals can be given:
- It is quite easy to determine the cardinal directions in the forest thicket, where there is moss on the trees.
- The ants were dragging on their backs construction material for their anthills and food supplies from everywhere, wherever these hardworking creatures could get.
- I am always drawn there, to magical lands, where we went with him last summer.
Adverbial clauses of time
Indicating the time of action, these subordinate clauses refer both to the entire main sentence and specifically to one predicate. You can ask the following questions about this type of subordinate clause: how long? How long? When? since when? Often there are demonstrative words in the main part of the sentence, for example: sometimes, once, always, now, then. For example: Animals will then be friendly with each other, (When?) when they grow up next to each other since childhood.
Adverbial clauses, causes, goals, consequences
- If the dependent parts of complex sentences answer questions in what case? or under what condition? and relate either to the predicate of the main part or to the whole of it, joining with the help of conditional conjunctions once, if, if, if, when And How(meaning “if”), then they can be classified as subordinate conditions. Example: And even the most inveterate scoundrel turns into a serious and well-mannered gentleman, ( in which case?)when he becomes a parent, be it a person, a monkey or a penguin.
- For questions because of which? Why? for what reason? from what? adjunct reasons answer. They are joined using causal conjunctions because, because, since. Example: For a child in early childhood, the authority of the parent is unshakable, ( Why?) because his well-being depends on this creature.
- Dependent clauses indicating the purpose of the action named in the main part and answering questions For what? for what purpose? For what?, are called subordinate clauses. Their connection to the main part is ensured by target unions in order to, then in order to (in order to). Example: But even then you should accompany your requirements with explanations ( for what purpose?) then, so that the baby grows into a thinking person, and not a weak-willed robot performer.
- Dependent parts of a sentence that indicate a conclusion or result, indicate a consequence arising from the above in the main part of the sentence, are called subordinate clauses of the consequence and relate to the entire main sentence. They are usually joined by consequence unions That's why or So, for example: Education is a complex and regular process, ( what follows from this?) therefore, parents should always be in shape and not relax even for a minute.
Adverbial clause comparisons
These types of dependent clauses in complex constructions relate either to the predicate or to the entire main part and answer the question like what?, joining comparative unions as if, than (that), as if, exactly. Subordinate clauses differ from comparative phrases in that they have a grammatical basis. For example: The polar bear cub was so funny falling on his side and lifting his paws up, it looks like a naughty boy playing happily in the sandbox with his friends.
Circumstantial clauses
Dependent clauses in a complex construction, denoting circumstances in spite of which the action indicated in the main part has been or may be committed, are called subordinate clauses of concession. You can ask them questions: contrary to what? no matter what? and join to the main thing with the help of concessionary unions at least (even though), let (even though), that, for nothing, despite and some others. Conjunctive combinations are often used: no matter how much, whatever, whenever, whoever, no matter how and the like. Example: Even though the panda cubs were playing happily, their dark spots around their eyes gave the impression of sad thoughtfulness.
A literate person should always remember: when writing, sentences that are part of a complex sentence are separated by commas.
1. Questions: comparative clauses answer the questions: How? like what? However, it is not always possible to ask exactly these questions about a comparative clause. Therefore it is necessary to pay Special attention on their means of communication.
2. Communications: comparative clauses are attached to the main clause unions: as, as if, as if, as if, just like that(meaning “how”), as if, no matter what, just as, just like, than, rather than, than if, than... then and etc.
Complex sentences with comparative conjunctions in the main clause may have demonstrative words with the meaning of measure and degree:
Wind vomited overcoat So [How?], as if he wanted to tear her in two(Telpugov).
Such subordinate clauses combine the meaning of comparison with the meaning of manner of action and degree. In a number of manuals they are referred to as subordinate clauses of manner of action and degree.
A special group among sentences with comparative clauses are those in the main clause of which there is an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree, and the subordinate clause is attached to the main clause with the conjunctions than, rather than:
Your mind contains far more thoughts, feelings, and poetic power than you realised.(Paustovsky); The young man received more from home than he should have expected(Pushkin); Rather than go to the bridge, let's look for a ford(Krylov).
Instead of the comparative degree form, the pronouns other, other, and the pronominal adverb otherwise are also used:
Of course, Crimea turned out to be completely different than I thought about it(Paustovsky).
This group of complex sentences is distinguished not only by its special structure, but also by its special meaning. In a number of manuals, such constructions are distinguished as independent types of subordinate clauses.
A special place in the system of complex sentences is also occupied by sentences with the double conjunction than... that. It is difficult to distinguish between the main and subordinate clauses in them, since both parts cannot exist independently. Traditionally, a subordinate clause is considered to have the first part with the than part of the conjunction, while the second part (with the the part of the conjunction) is considered the main clause:
The less we love a woman, the easier it is for her to like us(Pushkin).
3. Place in a sentence: comparative clauses can appear after the main clause, before the main clause, or in the middle of the main clause.
Serve me[How?], how did you serve him(Pushkin).
, (How- union).
With dull sounds[like what?], as if someone hits a cardboard box with their palm, grenades explode(Perventsev).
[ , (as if- union),].
The closer the day's shooting comes to an end, the more grumpy and becomes more unceremonious surveyor(Kuprin).
(how), [those ].
Note!
1) As already noted, comparative clauses are close in meaning to clauses of manner and degree. Sometimes you can ask both of them the same question: how? . In the main clause of complex sentences with such subordinate clauses there may be the same demonstrative words, first of all - the demonstrative word so. Therefore, to distinguish between these types of subordinate clauses, it is necessary to take into account the totality of all features. Please also note that both in the subordinate clause of manner of action and degree it is a conjunctive word, and in the comparative clause it is a conjunction.
2) Comparative clauses are often incomplete sentences.
Wide shadows walk across the plain like clouds across the sky(Chekhov) - predicate omitted walk.
It is necessary to distinguish an incomplete subordinate clause from a comparative clause. In a comparative clause, the predicate may be omitted - it is already named in the main clause (see example above). Since in subordinate clause with the omitted predicate, the subject and secondary members remain, grammatically dependent on the predicate (adverbial, complement), then the predicate can be easily restored.
Wed: His existence is enclosed in this tight program, like an egg in a shell.(Chekhov). - His existence is enclosed in this tight program, like an egg concluded into the shell.
If in a comparative construction there are no members of the sentence that depend on the predicate, then it turns into a comparative phrase.
They drank grandma's liqueurs, yellow as gold, dark as tar, and green(M. Gorky).
3) The means of communication than, than... that in comparative clauses are conjunctions, not allied words (these are not pronouns in the instrumental case!).