Ecological monitoring of the state of the environment. State environmental monitoring
Environmental monitoring environment is a modern form of implementing the processes of environmental activities using informatization tools, which provides Sipan's regular assessment and forecasting of the living environment of society and the conditions for the functioning of ecosystems for making managerial decisions on environmental safety, conservation of the natural environment and rational nature management. Environmental monitoring - this Information system observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the environment, created with the aim of highlighting the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes.
Back in the late 60s, many countries realized that it was necessary to coordinate efforts to collect, store and process data on the state of the environment. In 1972, a conference on environmental protection was held in Stockholm under the auspices of the UN, where for the first time it became necessary to agree on a definition of the concept of "monitoring". It was decided to understand environmental monitoring as a complex system of observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors. The term appeared in addition to the term "environmental state control". Currently, monitoring is understood as a set of observations of certain components of the biosphere, organized in a special way in space and time, as well as an adequate set of methods for environmental forecasting.
The main tasks of environmental monitoring: monitoring the state of the biosphere, assessing and forecasting its state, determining the degree of anthropogenic impact on the environment, identifying factors and sources of impact. The ultimate goal of environmental monitoring is to optimize the relationship between man and nature, the ecological orientation of economic activity.
Environmental monitoring arose at the intersection of ecology, economics, biology, geography, geophysics, geology and other sciences. Allocate different kinds monitoring depending on the criteria: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic) Geoecological (natural and economic) industrial and ecological; biospheric (global) geophysical; climatic; biological; public health, etc.
Depending on the purpose, special programs carry out general, crisis and background environmental monitoring of the environment (Fig. 14.1).
Rice. 14.1. Types and levels of environmental monitoring system
Source: compiled according to the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine: [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: menr.gov.ua/monitoring
General environmental monitoring - these are the optimal places, parameters and frequency of environmental observations in terms of quantity and location, which allow, based on the assessment and forecasting of the state of the environment, to support the adoption of appropriate decisions at all levels of departmental and national environmental activities.
Crisis environmental monitoring - these are intensive observations of natural objects, sources of technogenic impact located in areas of ecological tension, in zones of accidents and natural hazards with harmful environmental consequences, with the aim of ensuring timely response to crisis and emergency environmental situations and making decisions on their liquidation, creation of normal conditions for the life of the population and the economy.
Background eco-monitoring of the environment - these are long-term comprehensive studies of specially defined objects of nature protection zones in order to assess and predict changes in the state of ecosystems remote from objects of industrial and economic activity, or to obtain information to determine the average statistical (background) level of environmental pollution in anthropogenic conditions.
In Ukraine, monitoring of the natural environment is carried out by many departments, within the framework of which the relevant tasks, levels and components of the monitoring subsystem are implemented. So, for example, in the monitoring system, carried out in Ukraine, there are three levels of environmental monitoring environment: global, regional and local.
Purpose, methodological approaches and practice of monitoring on various levels are different. The criteria for the quality of the natural environment are most clearly defined at the local level. The goal of regulation here is to ensure that such a strategy does not bring the concentrations of certain priority anthropogenic pollutants into an acceptable range, is a kind of standard. It represents the values of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), which are fixed by law. Compliance of the quality of the natural environment with standards is controlled by the relevant supervisory authorities. The task of monitoring at the local level is to determine the parameters of the "emission field - concentration field" models. The object of influence at the local level is a person.
At the regional level, the approach to monitoring is based on the fact that pollutants, having entered the cycle of substances in the biosphere, change the state of the abiotic component and, as a result, cause changes in the biota. Any economic activity carried out on a regional scale affects the regional background - it changes the state of equilibrium of the abiotic and biological components. For example, the state of vegetation cover, primarily forests, significantly affects climatic conditions region.
The goals of global monitoring are determined in the process of international cooperation within the framework of various international organizations, agreements (conventions) and declarations. Global environmental monitoring includes seven areas:
1. Organization and expansion of the system of warning about the threat to human health.
2. Assessment of global atmospheric pollution and its impact on climate.
3. Assessment of the quantity and distribution of contaminants in biological systems, especially in food chains.
4. Evaluation of critical problems that arise as a result of agricultural activities and land use.
5. Assessment of responses of terrestrial ecosystems to environmental impacts.
6. Assessment of ocean pollution and the impact of pollution on marine organisms.
7. Creation of an improved system of warnings about natural disasters on an international scale.
The state system of environmental monitoring carries out the following types of work: regime observations, operational work, special work. Regime work is carried out systematically according to annual programs, at specially organized observation points. The need to perform operational work depends on cases of emergency pollution of the natural environment or natural disasters; these works are carried out in emergency situations.
The creation and functioning of the State System of Environmental Monitoring of the Environment should contribute to the implementation of the state environmental policy, which provides for:
Ecologically rational use of the natural and socio-economic potential of the state, maintaining a favorable environment for the life of society;
Socio-ecological and economically rational solution problems arising from environmental pollution, natural hazards, man-made accidents and disasters;
Development of international cooperation to preserve the biodiversity of nature, protect the ozone layer of the atmosphere, prevent anthropogenic climate change, protect forests and reforestation, transboundary environmental pollution, restore the natural state of the Dnieper, Danube, Black and Azov Seas.
The state system of environmental monitoring should become an integrated information system that will collect, store and process environmental information for departmental and comprehensive assessment and forecasting of the state of natural environments, biota and living conditions, developing sound recommendations for making effective social, economic and environmental decisions on all levels of state executive power, improvement of relevant legislative acts, as well as the implementation of Ukraine's obligations under international environmental agreements, programs, projects and activities.
The functioning of the State system of environmental monitoring is implemented according to the principles:
Systematic observations of the state of the natural environment and man-made objects that affect it, or are considered environmentally unstable;
Timeliness of obtaining and processing observational data at departmental and generalizing (local, regional and state) levels;
The complexity of using eco-information entering the system from departmental environmental monitoring services and other suppliers;
Objectivity of primary, analytical and predictive environmental information and consistency of regulatory, organizational and methodological support for environmental monitoring of the environment, carried out by the relevant services of ministries and departments of Ukraine, other central executive authorities;
Compatibility of technical, information and software of its constituent parts; the efficiency of bringing eco-information to the executive authorities, other interested bodies, enterprises, organizations and institutions;
Availability of environmental information to the population of Ukraine and the world community.
The state system of environmental monitoring should ensure the achievement of the following main goals:
1) increasing the level of adequacy to the actual ecological state of the environment of its information model;
2) increasing the efficiency of obtaining and reliability of primary data through the use of advanced techniques at all levels government controlled and local government;
3) increasing the level and quality of information services for eco-information consumers at all levels of the system functioning based on network access to distributed departmental and integrated data banks;
4) complex processing and use of information for making appropriate decisions.
So, monitoring brings to life a system of observations that allow you to identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activities. The main blocks of this system are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of: the natural environment; anthropogenic changes in the state of the abiotic component of the biosphere (in particular, changes in the levels of pollution of natural environments), the feedback of ecosystems to these changes and anthropogenic shifts associated with the influence of pollution, agricultural use of land, deforestation, development of transport, urbanization, etc. The current stage of development of society provides for the introduction in all spheres of life of the latest information technologies, the use of significant amounts of information and, accordingly, the availability of new and broad knowledge. It is necessary to develop an information strategy, including the development of the most effective methods its selection, processing and dissemination, which requires updating and development of the monitoring system itself.
Environmental monitoring- this is a set of organizational structures, methods, methods and techniques for monitoring the state of the environment, changes occurring with it, their consequences, as well as activities that are potentially hazardous to the environment, human health and controlled territory, production and other facilities.
Types of monitoring:
– depending on the scope of the monitoring system – global, national, regional, local;
– on the level of human alteration of the environment – background and impact;
- from the monitoring object - the actual ecological, air, water, land, wildlife, hazardous waste, radiation, social and hygienic;
– development monitoring based on demographic, environmental, social and economic indicators.
Federal Law No. 7-FZ of January 10, 2002 “On Environmental Protection” uses only two concepts:
1)environmental monitoring- an integrated system for monitoring the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors;
2)state environmental monitoring– environmental monitoring carried out by public authorities and its subjects.
Goals state environmental monitoring (Article 63):
– monitoring the state of the environment, including in areas where sources of anthropogenic impact are located;
– monitoring the impact of anthropogenic sources on the environment;
- meeting the needs of the state, legal entities and individuals in reliable information necessary to prevent and (or) reduce the adverse effects of changes in the state of the environment.
Subjects of environmental monitoring– executive authorities of the Russian Federation and constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments, specialized organizations authorized to carry out environmental monitoring functions, economic entities, public organizations.
Environmental monitoring is carried out by a special observational network. This is a system of stationary and mobile observation points, including posts, stations, laboratories, bureau centers, and observatories. A significant part of the observation network operates within the Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, other federal executive authorities and their territorial bodies.
Objects of environmental monitoring- this is the environment as a whole and its individual elements; negative changes environmental qualities that can provide negative influence on the health and property of people, the security of territories; types of activities assessed by the legislation as posing a potential threat to the environment, human health and environmental safety of territories; equipment, technologies, production and other technical facilities, the existence, use, transformation and destruction of which poses a danger to the environment and human health; emergency and other sudden physical, chemical, biological and other circumstances that can have a negative impact on the environment and human health; territories and objects with a special legal status.
The concept of environmental monitoring Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program Menn 1972. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring by Yu.
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Lecture #14
Environmental monitoring
- The concept of environmental monitoring
- Tasks of environmental monitoring
- Monitoring classification
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment (sanitary and hygienic monitoring, environmental)
- Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
1. The concept of environmental monitoring
Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program (Menn, 1972). The need for detailed information about the state of the biosphere has become even more obvious in recent decades due to serious negative consequences caused by uncontrolled human exploitation of natural resources.
To detect changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly referred to as monitoring.
The word "monitoring" entered the scientific circulation from the English-language literature and comes from the English word " monitoring " comes from the word " monitor ", which has English language the following meaning: monitor, device or device for monitoring and constant control over something.
The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972. at the UN Stockholm Conference.
In our country, one of the first to develop the theory of monitoring was Yu.A. Israel. While clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring, Yu.A.Izrael back in 1974 focused not only on observation, but also on forecasting, introducing the anthropogenic factor as the main cause of these changes into the definition of the term “environmental monitoring”. Monitoring environmenthe calls the system of observations, assessment and forecast of anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment. (Fig.1) . The Stockholm Conference (1972) on the environment marked the beginning of the creation of global systems for monitoring the state of the environment (GEMS / GEMS).
Monitoring includes the followingmain directions activities:
- Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
- Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this state.
Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system for observing, analyzing, diagnosing and predicting the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides the necessary information for such management (Fig. 2.).
Information system / monitoring / management
Rice. 2. Block diagram of the monitoring system.
2. Tasks of environmental monitoring
- Scientific and technical support for observation, assessment of the forecast of the state of the environment;
- Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;
- Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment;
- Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation. (Fig.3.) .
The essence and content of environmental monitoring consists of an ordered set of procedures organized in cycles: N 1 - observations, O 1 - estimate, P 1 - forecast and Y 1 - management. Then the observations are supplemented with new data, on a new cycle, and then the cycles are repeated on a new time interval H 2, O 2, P 2, U 2, etc. (Fig. 4.) .
Thus, monitoring is a complexly built, cyclically functioning and developing in time spiral constantly operating system.
Rice. 4. Scheme of functioning of monitoring in time.
3. Classification of monitoring.
- By the scope of observation;
- By objects of observation;
- According to the level of contamination of objects of observation;
- According to factors and sources of pollution;
- Observation methods.
According to the scale of observation
|
Level name monitoring |
Monitoring Organizations |
|
Global |
Interstate monitoring system environment |
|
National |
State system for monitoring the environment of the territory of Russia |
|
Regional |
Territorial, regional environmental monitoring systems |
|
Local |
City, district environmental monitoring systems |
|
Detailed |
Environmental monitoring systems for enterprises, deposits, factories, etc. |
Detailed Monitoring
The lowest hierarchical level is the level of detailedenvironmental monitoring, implemented within the territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, deposits, etc. Systems of detailed environmental monitoring are the most important link in the system of a higher rank. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.
Local monitoring (impact)
It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, settlements, water bodies, etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. IN
Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances that make up emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger ones - regional monitoring systems.
Regional monitoring
It is carried out within a certain region, taking into account the natural character, type and intensity of technogenic impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are combined within one state into a single national monitoring network.
National monitoring
Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in the national interest. In Russia, it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task was set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network - the "Global Environmental Monitoring Network" (GEMS)
Global Monitoring
The purpose of GEMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GEMS deals with global warming, ozone layer problems, forest conservation, droughts, etc. .
By objects of observation
- atmospheric air
- in settlements;
- different layers of the atmosphere;
- stationary and mobile sources of pollution.
- Ground and surface water bodies
- fresh and salt water;
- mixing zones;
- regulated water bodies;
- natural reservoirs and streams.
- Geological environment
- soil layer;
- soils.
- Biological monitoring
- plants;
- animals;
- ecosystems;
- human.
- Snow monitoring
- Background radiation monitoring.
The level of contamination of objects of observation
- Background (basic monitoring)
These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.
2. Impact
Oriented to the source of pollution or a particular polluting effect.
By factors and sources of pollution
1. Gradient monitoring
This is the physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.
2. Ingredient monitoring
This is the monitoring of a single pollutant.
By methods of observation
1. Contact methods
2. Remote methods.
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment
Assessment of the actual state is a key direction in the framework of environmental monitoring. It allows you to determine trends in changes in the state of the environment; the degree of trouble and its causes; helps to make decisions on the normalization of the situation. Favorable situations that indicate the presence of ecological reserves of nature can also be identified.
The ecological reserve of a natural ecosystem is the difference between the maximum allowable and the actual state of the ecosystem.
The method for analyzing the results of observations and assessing the state of the ecosystem depend on the type of monitoring. Usually, the assessment is carried out according to a set of indicators or according to conditional indices developed for the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Unfortunately, there are no unified criteria even for identical elements of the natural environment. For example, consider only a few criteria.
In sanitary and hygienic monitoring, they usually use:
1) comprehensive assessments of the sanitary state of natural objects based on the totality of measured indicators (Table 1) or 2) pollution indices.
Table 1.
Comprehensive assessment of the sanitary state of water bodies based on a combination of physical, chemical and hydrobiological indicators
General principle calculation of pollution indices is as follows: first, the degree of deviation of the concentration of each pollutant from its MPC is determined, and then the obtained values are combined into a total indicator that takes into account the impact of several substances.
Let us give examples of the calculation of pollution indices used to assess air pollution (AP) and quality surface water(WIZ).
Calculation of the air pollution index (API).
IN practical work use a large number of different APIs. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of atmospheric pollution, for example, on the visibility of the atmosphere, on the transparency coefficient.
Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:
1. Single indices of atmospheric pollution by one impurity.
2. Comprehensive indicators of atmospheric pollution by several substances.
TO single indices relate:
The coefficient for expressing the impurity concentration in MPC units ( but ), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to MPC:
a = Сί / MACί
This API is used as a criterion for atmospheric air quality by individual impurities.
Repeatability (g ) concentrations of impurities in the air above a given level by post or by K posts of the city for the year. This is the percentage (%) of cases when the specified level is exceeded by single values of the impurity concentration:
g = (m / n ) ּ100%
where n - the number of observations for the period under review, m - the number of cases of exceeding one-time concentrations at the post.
ISA (I ) by a separate impurity - a quantitative characteristic of the level of atmospheric pollution by a separate impurity, taking into account the hazard class of the substance through normalization for danger SO 2 :
I \u003d (C g / MPCs) Ki
where I is an impurity, Ki - constant for various hazard classes to reduce to the degree of harmfulness of sulfur dioxide, C d is the average annual impurity concentration.
For substances of different hazard classes Ki is accepted:
|
Hazard Class |
||||
|
Ki value |
API calculation is based on the assumption that at the MPC level all harmful substances have the same effect on humans, and with a further increase in concentration, the degree of their harmfulness increases at a different rate, which depends on the hazard class of the substance.
This API is used to characterize the contribution of individual impurities to the total level of atmospheric pollution over a given period of time in a given territory and to compare the degree of atmospheric pollution by various substances.
TO complex indices relate:
The Comprehensive Urban Air Pollution Index (CIPA) is a quantitative measure of the level of air pollution generated by n substances present in the atmosphere of the city:
KIZA=
where II - unit index of air pollution by the i-th substance.
The complex index of air pollution by priority substances - a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution by priority substances that determine air pollution in cities, is calculated similarly to the KIZA.
Calculations of the natural water pollution index (WPI)can also be done in several ways.
Let us give as an example the calculation method recommended by the regulatory document, which is an integral part of the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991) - SanPiN 4630-88.
First, the measured concentrations of pollutants are grouped according to the limiting signs of harmfulness - LPV (organoleptic, toxicological and general sanitary). Then, for the first and second (organoleptic and toxicological LPV) groups, the degree of deviation (A i ) actual concentrations of substances ( C i ) from their MPC i , the same as for atmospheric air ( A i = C i / MPC i ). Next, find the sum of the indicators A i , for the first and second groups of substances:
where S is the sum of A i for substances regulated by organoleptic ( S org ) and toxicological ( S tox ) LPV; n - number of summarized indicators of water quality.
In addition, to determine the WPI, the value of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD are used. 20 (general sanitary LPV), bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive coli(LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (Table 2).
Comparing the corresponding indicators ( S org , S tox , BOD 20 etc.) with evaluation ones (see Table 2), determine the pollution index, the degree of pollution of the water body and the water quality class. The pollution index is determined by the most stringent value of the estimated indicator. So, if according to all indicators the water belongs to the I quality class, but the oxygen content in it is less than 4.0 mg/l (but more than 3.0 mg/l), then the WPI of such water should be taken as 1 and attributed to the II class quality (moderate degree of pollution).
Types of water use depend on the degree of water pollution in a water body (Table 3).
Table 2.
Hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (according to SanPiN 4630-88)
Table 3
Possible types of water use depending on the degree of pollution of the water body (according to SanPiN 4630-88)
|
Degree of pollution |
Possible use of a single object |
|
Permissible |
Suitable for all types of water use of the population with virtually no restrictions |
|
Moderate |
Indicates the danger of using a water body for cultural and domestic chains. Use as a source of domestic and drinking water supply without reducing the level: chemical pollution at water treatment facilities can lead to initial symptoms of intoxication in a part of the population, especially in the presence of substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes |
|
high |
Unconditional danger of cultural and domestic water use at a water body. It is unacceptable to use it as a source of domestic and drinking water supply due to the difficulty of removing toxic substances in the process of water treatment. Drinking water can lead to the appearance of symptoms of intoxication and the development of separated effects, especially in the presence of substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes. |
|
Extremely high |
Absolute unsuitability for all types of water use. Even short-term use of water in a water body is dangerous for public health |
In the services of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, to assess water quality, they use the method of calculating WPI only by chemical indicators, but taking into account more stringent fishery MPCs. At the same time, not 4, but 7 quality classes are distinguished:
I - very pure water(WPI = 0.3);
II - pure (WPI = 0.3 - 1.0);
III - moderately polluted (WPI = 1.0 - 2.5);
IV - polluted (WPI = 2.5 - 4.0);
V - dirty (WPI = 4.0 - 6.0);
VI - very dirty (WPI = 6.0 - 10.0);
VII - extremely dirty (WPI over 10.0).
Assessment of the level of chemical contamination of the soilis carried out according to the indicators developed in geochemical and geohygienic studies. These indicators are:
- concentration factor chemical(TO i ),
K i \u003d C i / C fi
where C i is the actual content of the analyte in the soil, mg/kg;
C fi – regional background content of the substance in the soil, mg/kg.
In the presence of MPC i for the soil type under consideration, K i determined by the multiplicity of exceeding the hygienic standard, i.e. according to the formula
K i = С i / MPC i
- total pollution index Z c , which is determined by the sum of the chemical concentration coefficients:
Zc \u003d ∑ K i - (n -1)
Where n is the number of pollutants in the soil, K i - concentration factor.
An approximate rating scale for the danger of soil pollution in terms of the total indicator is presented in Table. 3.
Table 3
|
Danger |
Change in health |
|
|
admissible |
16 |
low morbidity in children, minimum functional deviations |
|
moderately dangerous |
16-32 |
an increase in the overall incidence |
|
dangerous |
32-128 |
an increase in the overall incidence rate; an increase in the number of sick children, children with chronic diseases, disorders of the cardiovascular system |
|
extremely dangerous |
128 |
an increase in the overall incidence rate; increase in the number of sick children, impaired reproductive function |
Environmental monitoring is of particular importance in the global systemmonitoring of the environment and, first of all, in the monitoring of renewable resources of the biosphere. It includes observations of the ecological state of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.
As criteria characterizing changes in the state of natural systems, the following can be used: the balance of production and destruction; the value of primary production, the structure of the biocenosis; the rate of circulation of nutrients, etc. All these criteria are numerically expressed by various chemical and biological indicators. Thus, changes in the vegetation cover of the Earth are determined by changes in the area of forests.
The main result of environmental monitoring should be an assessment of the responses of ecosystems as a whole to anthropogenic disturbances.
The response, or reaction of an ecosystem, is a change in its ecological state in response to external influences. It is best to evaluate the response of the system by integral indicators of its state, which can be used as various indices and other functional characteristics. Let's consider some of them:
1. One of the most common responses of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts is eutrophication. Therefore, monitoring the change in indicators that integrally reflect the degree of eutrophication of a reservoir, for example, pH 100% , - the most important element of environmental monitoring.
2. The response to "acid rain" and other anthropogenic impacts may be a change in the structure of biocenoses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To assess such a response, various indices of species diversity are widely used, reflecting the fact that under any adverse conditions, the diversity of species in the biocenosis decreases, and the number of resistant species increases.
Dozens of such indices have been proposed by various authors. Indices based on information theory have found the greatest use, for example, the Shannon index:
where N - total number of individuals; S - number of species; N i - the number of individuals of the i -th species.
In practice, one does not deal with the abundance of a species in the entire population (in a sample), but with the abundance of a species in a sample; replacing N i /N by n i / n , we get:
The maximum diversity is observed when the numbers of all species are equal, and the minimum - when all species, except for one, are represented by one specimen. Diversity indices ( d ) reflect the structure of the community, weakly depend on the sample size, and are dimensionless.
Yu. L. Wilm (1970) calculated the Shannon diversity indices ( d ) in 22 uncontaminated and 21 polluted sections of different US rivers. In uncontaminated areas, the index ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, and in contaminated areas - from 0.4 to 1.6.
Assessment of the state of ecosystems in terms of species diversity is applicable to any types of impacts and any ecosystems.
3. The reaction of the system can manifest itself in a decrease in its resistance to anthropogenic stresses. As a universal integral criterion for assessing the stability of ecosystems, V. D. Fedorov (1975) proposed a function called a measure of homeostasis and equal to the ratio of functional indicators (for example, pH 100% or rate of photosynthesis) to structural (diversity indices).
A feature of ecological monitoring is that the effects of impacts, hardly noticeable when studying an individual organism or species, are revealed when considering the system as a whole.
5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
The forecast and assessment of the predicted state of ecosystems and the biosphere are based on the results of environmental monitoring in the past and present, the study of information series of observations and the analysis of trends in changes.
On the initial stage it is necessary to predict changes in the intensity of sources of impacts and pollution, to predict the degree of their influence: to predict, for example, the amount of pollutants in various media, their distribution in space, changes in their properties and concentrations over time. To make such forecasts, data on human activity plans are needed.
The next stage is the forecast of possible changes in the biosphere under the influence of existing pollution and other factors, since changes that have already occurred (especially genetic ones) can act for many more years. An analysis of the predicted state allows choosing priority environmental measures and making adjustments to economic activities at the regional level.
Forecasting the state of ecosystems is a necessary ringing in the management of the quality of the natural environment.
In assessing the ecological state of the biosphere on a global scale by integral features (averaged over space and time), remote observation methods play an exceptional role. Leading among them are methods based on the use of space facilities. For these purposes, special satellite systems are being created (Meteor in Russia, Landsat in the USA, etc.). Synchronous three-level observations with the help of satellite systems, aircraft and ground services are especially effective. They allow obtaining information about the state of forests, agricultural land, sea phytoplankton, soil erosion, urban areas, redistribution of water resources, atmospheric pollution, etc. For example, there is a correlation between the spectral brightness of the planet’s surface and the humus content in soils and their salinity.
Space photography provides ample opportunities for geobotanical zoning; makes it possible to judge the growth of the population by the areas of settlements; energy consumption by the brightness of night lights; clearly identify dust layers and temperature anomalies associated with radioactive decay; fix increased concentrations of chlorophyll in water bodies; detect forest fires and much more.
in Russia since the late 1960s. there is a unified nationwide system for monitoring and control of environmental pollution. It is based on the principle of the complexity of observations of natural environments in terms of hydrometeorological, physicochemical, biochemical and biological parameters. Observations are built on a hierarchical principle.
The first step is local observation points serving the city, region and consisting of control and measuring stations and a computer center for collecting and processing information (CSI). Then the data goes to the second level - regional (territorial), from where the information is transferred to local interested organizations. The third level is the Main Data Center, which collects and summarizes information on a national scale. For this, PCs are now widely used and digital raster maps are created.
Currently, the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (EGSEM) is being created, the purpose of which is to issue objective comprehensive information about the state of the environment. USSEM includes monitoring: sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment; biotic component of the natural environment.
EGSEM provides for the creation of environmental information services. Monitoring leads public service observations (GOS).
Atmospheric air observations in 1996 were carried out in 284 cities at 664 posts. As of January 1, 1996, the monitoring network for pollution of surface waters of the Russian Federation consisted of 1928 points, 2617 alignments, 2958 verticals, 3407 horizons located on 1363 water bodies (1979 - 1200 water bodies); of these - 1204 watercourses and 159 reservoirs. Within the framework of the State Monitoring of the Geological Environment (GMGS), the observation network included 15,000 groundwater observation points, 700 observation sites for dangerous exogenous processes, 5 polygons and 30 wells for studying earthquake precursors.
Among all the blocks of the USSEM, the most complex and least developed not only in Russia, but also in the world is the monitoring of the biotic component. There is no single methodology for the use of living objects either for assessing or for regulating the quality of the environment. Therefore, the primary task is to determine the biotic indicators for each of the monitoring blocks at the federal and territorial levels in a differentiated way for terrestrial, water and soil ecosystems.
To manage the quality of the natural environment, it is important not only to have information about its state, but also to determine the damage from anthropogenic impacts, economic efficiency, environmental protection measures, and own economic mechanisms for protecting the natural environment.
actual condition
environment
The state of the environment
environments
Behind the state
environment
And the factors on
affecting her
Forecast
mark
Observations
Monitoring
observations
Status forecast
Assessment of the actual state
Estimation of the predicted state
Environmental quality regulation
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
A TASK
GOAL
OBSERVATION
GRADE
FORECAST
DECISION-MAKING
STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT
DETECTION
behind the change in the state of the environment
proposed environmental changes
observed changes and identification of the effect of human activity
causes of environmental change associated with human activities
to prevent
negative consequences of human activities
optimal relationship between society and the environment
Fig.3. Main tasks and purpose of monitoring
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About 2
H 2
P 1
About 1
Approaches to the classification of environmental monitoring
There are many different approaches to the classification of environmental monitoring. They are usually subdivided depending on the nature of the tasks to be solved in the process of research, or according to the levels of organization of the monitoring object, according to the studied living environments, etc. This classification includes the entire range of environmental monitoring varieties, various approaches to monitoring the dynamics of both abiotic and biotic components of the biosphere and the response of natural ecosystems to these changes.
Thus, environmental monitoring involves both geophysical and biological components, which determines the widest range of methods and research methods used in its implementation. Environmental monitoring as a whole includes a very wide range of methods and methodological approaches, among which geophysical, chemical, and biological aspects are usually singled out.
Remark 1
The environmental monitoring system can be implemented at several levels that are not reducible to one another; for each of them there are specially developed programs. These levels usually include impact, regional and background monitoring.
The first of them is aimed mainly at controlling the impact on the environment of specific objects, the second one is aimed at studying the state of the ecosystems of a certain region (it can be further subdivided according to the size of the territory), and the third one is at comparing disturbed territories with reference ones.
Types of monitoring
Impact Monitoring involves the study of strong environmental impacts on a local scale. The program of this level of monitoring may include, for example, a study using special methods of discharges or emissions of a particular enterprise. The ultimate task in this case is not so much to establish the structure and volumes of emitted substances, but to assess their harmful effects on the environment. Depending on the characteristics of the surrounding ecosystems, the same quantitative indicators of pollution can be practically harmless, or lead to catastrophic results. Due to the peculiarities of pollutant migration in ecosystems, as well as the tendency of some of them to accumulate, impact monitoring should be quite long.
Regional monitoring usually involves the study of migration and transformation of pollutants in ecosystems, the study of the combined impact of various environmental, both natural and anthropogenic, factors characteristic of the study area. The subject of this level of monitoring is the state of the environment within a more or less extensive region.
Background monitoring is carried out on the basis of natural standards - biosphere reserves, where there is no human economic activity. Its purpose is to fix the background state of the environment, which is very important for comparative assessments of the anthropogenic impact on the transformed territories.
Monitoring of the state of specially protected natural areas characterized by its own characteristics. Its main tasks are determined primarily by the uniqueness of objects and their function.
The concept of monitoring. Why is it needed?
environmental monitoring information
The term "monitoring" itself first appeared in the recommendations of the special commission SCOPE (Scientific Committee on Environmental Problems) at UNESCO in 1971, and in 1972 the first proposals for a Global Environmental Monitoring System (UN Stockholm Conference on the Environment) appeared to determine systems of repeated purposeful observations of the elements of the natural environment in space and time. However, such a system has not been created to this day due to disagreements in the scope, forms and objects of monitoring, the distribution of responsibilities between already existing observing systems. We have the same problems in our country, therefore, when there is an urgent need for regime observations of the environment, each industry must create its own local monitoring system.
Environmental monitoring is called regular, performed according to given program observations of natural environments, natural resources, flora and fauna, which make it possible to identify their states and the processes occurring in them under the influence of anthropogenic activity.
Ecological monitoring should be understood as organized monitoring of the natural environment, which, firstly, provides a constant assessment of the environmental conditions of the human habitat and biological objects (plants, animals, microorganisms, etc.), as well as an assessment of the state and functional value of ecosystems , secondly, conditions are created for determining corrective actions in cases where the target indicators of environmental conditions are not achieved.
In accordance with the above definitions and the functions assigned to the system, monitoring includes several basic procedures:
- 1. selection (definition) of the object of observation;
- 2. examination of the selected object of observation;
- 3. compiling an information model for the object of observation;
- 4. measurement planning;
- 5. assessment of the state of the object of observation and identification of its information model;
- 6. forecasting changes in the state of the object of observation;
- 7. presentation of information in a user-friendly form and bringing it to the consumer.
It should be taken into account that the monitoring system itself does not include environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions.
The environmental monitoring system should accumulate, systematize and analyze information:
on the state of the environment;
about the causes of observed and probable changes in the state (i.e. about the sources and factors of influence);
on the admissibility of changes and loads on the environment as a whole;
about the existing reserves of the biosphere.
Thus, the environmental monitoring system includes observations of the state of the elements of the biosphere and observations of the sources and factors of anthropogenic impact.
Environmental monitoring of the environment can be developed at the level of an industrial facility, city, district, region, territory, republic as part of a federation.
The nature and mechanism of generalization of information about the environmental situation as it moves through the hierarchical levels of the environmental monitoring system is determined using the concept of an information portrait of the environmental situation. The latter is a set of graphically presented spatially distributed data characterizing the ecological situation in a certain area, together with the map base of the area. The resolution of the informational portrait depends on the scale of the map base used.
In 1975 The Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) was organized under the auspices of the UN, but it began to operate effectively only recently. This system consists of 5 interrelated subsystems: the study of climate change, long-range transport of pollutants, hygienic aspects of the environment, the study of the oceans and land resources. There are 22 networks of active stations of the global monitoring system, as well as international and national monitoring systems. One of the main ideas of monitoring is reaching a fundamentally new level of competence when making decisions on a local, regional and global scale.
The monitoring system is implemented at several levels, which correspond to specially developed programs:
impact (study of strong impacts on a local scale);
regional (manifestation of problems of migration and transformation of pollutants, joint impact various factors characteristic of the regional economy);
background (on the basis of biosphere reserves, where any economic activity is excluded).
When environmental information moves from the local level (city, district, zone of influence of an industrial facility, etc.) to the federal level, the scale of the base map on which this information is applied increases, therefore, the resolution of information portraits of the environmental situation changes at different hierarchical levels of environmental monitoring . Thus, at the local level of environmental monitoring, the information portrait should contain all sources of emissions (ventilation pipes of industrial enterprises, wastewater outlets, etc.).
At the regional level, closely located sources of influence "merge" into one group source. As a result, in the regional information portrait, a small city with several tens of emissions looks like one local source, the parameters of which are determined according to the source monitoring data.
At the federal level of environmental monitoring, there is an even greater generalization of spatially distributed information. As local sources of emissions at this level, industrial areas and rather large territorial formations can play the role. When moving from one hierarchical level to another, not only information about emission sources is generalized, but also other data characterizing the ecological situation.
When developing an environmental monitoring project, the following information is required:
- 1. sources of pollutants entering the environment - emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere by industrial, energy, transport and other facilities; wastewater discharges into water bodies; surface washouts of pollutants and biogenic substances into the surface waters of land and sea; the introduction of pollutants and biogenic substances onto the earth's surface and (or) into the soil layer together with fertilizers and pesticides during agricultural activities; places of burial and storage of industrial and municipal waste; technogenic accidents leading to the release of hazardous substances into the atmosphere and (or) the spill of liquid pollutants and hazardous substances, etc.;
- 2. transfers of pollutants - processes of atmospheric transfer; transfer and migration processes in the aquatic environment;
- 3. processes of landscape-geochemical redistribution of pollutants - migration of pollutants along the soil profile to the level ground water; migration of pollutants along the landscape-geochemical conjugation, taking into account geochemical barriers and biochemical cycles; biochemical circulation, etc.;
- 4. data on the state of anthropogenic emission sources - the power of the emission source and its location, hydrodynamic conditions for the release of emissions into the environment.
In the zone of influence of emission sources, systematic monitoring of the following objects and parameters of the environment is organized.
- 1. Atmosphere: chemical and radionuclide composition of the gaseous and aerosol phase of the air sphere; solid and liquid precipitation (snow, rain) and their chemical and radionuclide composition; thermal and humidity pollution of the atmosphere.
- 2. Hydrosphere: chemical and radionuclide composition of the environment of surface waters (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.), groundwater, suspensions and these deposits in natural drains and reservoirs; thermal pollution of surface and ground waters.
- 3. Soil: chemical and radionuclide composition of the active soil layer.
- 4. Biota: chemical and radioactive contamination of agricultural land, vegetation, soil zoocenoses, terrestrial communities, domestic and wild animals, birds, insects, aquatic plants, plankton, fish.
- 5. Urbanized environment: chemical and radiation background of the air environment of settlements; chemical and radionuclide composition of food, drinking water, etc.
- 6. Population: characteristic demographic parameters (population size and density, birth and death rates, age structure, morbidity, level of congenital deformities and anomalies); socio-economic factors.
Systems for monitoring natural environments and ecosystems include means of monitoring: the ecological quality of the air environment, the ecological state of surface waters and aquatic ecosystems, the ecological state of the geological environment and terrestrial ecosystems.
Observations within the framework of this type of monitoring are carried out without taking into account specific emission sources and are not related to their zones of influence. The basic principle of organization is natural-ecosystem.
The objectives of observations carried out as part of the monitoring of natural environments and ecosystems are:
- - assessment of the state and functional integrity of the habitat and ecosystems;
- - identification of changes in natural conditions as a result of anthropogenic activities in the territory;
- - study of changes in the ecological climate (long-term ecological state) of the territories.
In the late 1980s, the concept of public environmental expertise arose and quickly became widespread.
The original interpretation of this term was very broad. An independent environmental review meant a variety of ways to obtain and analyze information (environmental monitoring, environmental impact assessment, independent research, etc.). Currently, the concept of public environmental expertise is defined by law.
“Environmental expertise - establishing the compliance of the planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and the admissibility of the implementation of the object of expertise in order to prevent possible adverse effects of this activity on the environment and related social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of the object of environmental expertise.”
Ecological expertise can be state and public.
Public ecological expertise is carried out at the initiative of citizens and public organizations (associations), as well as at the initiative of local governments by public organizations (associations).
The objects of the state ecological expertise are:
draft master plans for the development of territories,
all types of urban planning documentation (for example, master plan, building project),
draft schemes for the development of sectors of the national economy,
projects of interstate investment programs,
projects of integrated schemes for nature protection, schemes for the protection and use of natural resources (including projects for land use and forest management,
materials justifying the transfer of forest land to non-forest land),
draft international treaties,
substantiation materials for licenses to carry out activities that can have an impact on the environment,
feasibility studies and projects for construction, reconstruction,
expansion, technical re-equipment, conservation and liquidation of organizations and other objects of economic activity, regardless of their estimated cost, departmental affiliation and forms of ownership,
draft technical documentation for new equipment, technology, materials,
substances, certified goods and services.
Public ecological expertise can be carried out in relation to the same objects as the state ecological expertise, with the exception of objects, information about which constitutes state,
commercial and (or) other legally protected secret.
The purpose of the environmental review is to prevent possible adverse effects of the proposed activity on the environment and related socio-economic and other consequences.
Foreign experience testifies to the high economic efficiency of environmental expertise. The US Environmental Protection Agency performed a selective analysis of environmental impact reports. In half of the cases studied, there was a decrease in the total cost of projects due to the implementation of constructive environmental measures. According to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, a possible increase in the cost of projects associated with an environmental impact assessment and subsequent consideration of environmental restrictions in working projects pays off in an average of 5-7 years. According to Western experts, the inclusion of environmental factors in the decision-making process at the design stage turns out to be 3-4 times cheaper than the subsequent additional installation of treatment equipment.
Experiencing the results of the destructive action of water, wind, earthquakes, snow avalanches etc., man has long realized the elements of monitoring, accumulating experience in predicting the weather and natural disasters.
This kind of knowledge has always been and still remains necessary in order to reduce, as far as possible, the damage caused to human society by adverse natural phenomena and, most importantly, reduce the risk of human losses.
The consequences of most natural disasters need to be assessed from all sides. Thus, hurricanes that destroy buildings and lead to human casualties, as a rule, bring heavy rainfall, which in arid regions give a significant increase in yields. Therefore, the organization of monitoring requires an in-depth analysis, taking into account not only the economic side of the issue, but also the characteristics of historical traditions, the level of culture of each particular region.
Moving from the contemplation of environmental phenomena through the mechanisms of adaptation to a conscious and increasing influence on them, a person gradually complicated the method of observing natural processes and, voluntarily or involuntarily, became involved in the pursuit of himself. Even ancient philosophers believed that everything in the world is connected with everything, that careless intervention in the process, even seemingly of secondary importance, can lead to irreversible changes in the world. Observing nature, we have been evaluating it from a philistine position for a long time, without thinking about the expediency of the value of our observations, about the fact that we are dealing with the most complex self-organizing and self-structuring system, about the fact that a person is just a particle of this system. And if in Newton's time mankind admired the integrity of this world, now one of the strategic thoughts of mankind is the violation of this integrity, which inevitably follows from the commercial attitude to nature and underestimation of the global nature of these violations. Man changes landscapes, creates artificial biospheres, organizes agrotechno-natural and fully technogenic biocomplexes, rebuilds the dynamics of rivers and oceans, and introduces changes into climatic processes. Moving in this way, until recently, he turned all his scientific and technical capabilities to the detriment of nature and, ultimately, to himself. The reverse negative connections of living nature are more and more actively resisting this onslaught of man, the discrepancy between the goals of nature and man is becoming more and more clear. And now we are witnessing the approach to the crisis line, beyond which the genus Homo sapiens will not be able to exist.
The ideas of the technosphere, noosphere, technoworld, anthroposphere, etc., born at the beginning of our century, in the homeland of V.I. Vernadsky were received with great delay. The entire civilized world is now looking forward to the practical implementation of these ideas in our country, with its size and power of energy potential capable of reversing all progressive undertakings outside of it. And in this sense, monitoring systems are the cure for madness, the mechanism that will help prevent humanity from sliding into disaster.
Increasingly powerful catastrophes are a companion of human activity. Natural disasters have always happened. They are one of the elements of the evolution of the biosphere. Hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, forest fires, etc. annually bring enormous material damage and consume human lives. At the same time, the anthropogenic causes of many catastrophes are gaining strength. Regular oil tanker accidents, the Chernobyl disaster, explosions at factories and warehouses with the release of toxic substances and other unpredictable disasters are the reality of our time. The increase in the number and power of accidents demonstrates the helplessness of a person in the face of an approaching environmental catastrophe.
It can only be pushed back by the rapid large-scale implementation of monitoring systems. Such systems are being successfully implemented in North America, Western Europe and Japan.
In other words, the answer to the question about the need for monitoring can be considered positively resolved.